Page Two is thankful and acknowledges that all facets of our work are carried out on the traditional, ancestral, and unceded territories of the xʷməθkwəy̓əm (Musqueam), the Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish) and the Səl̓ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh (Tsleil-Waututh) nations in Vancouver, where our headquarters are located, and of the Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation, the Anishinaabe, the Haudenosaunee, and the Wendat peoples in Toronto, where we also live and work.
The diverse cultures of Indigenous peoples are an integral part of the land now known Canada, as well as of its national identity and history. First Nations and Inuit have lived on Turtle Island since time immemorial, developing rich cultures, languages, and ways of life deeply connected to these territories over thousands of years. After the arrival of the Europeans, the Métis emerged as a distinct people and culture.
Understanding the histories, cultures, and contemporary challenges of Indigenous peoples is crucial to appreciating the complex narrative of this land and its ongoing social and political evolution.
Introduction to Indigenous Peoples in Canada
The term “Indigenous” encompasses a broad spectrum of ethnic and cultural identities within Canada, each with its own rich history and contemporary significance. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis are the primary groups recognized under Canadian law, but they—and the people within each of them—are distinguished by their languages, cultural practices, and historical territories.
- First Nations — The term refers to a diverse group of Indigenous communities living primarily in the forested and coastal regions of southern Canada. These communities are known for their deep connection to the land, sophisticated self-governance, and rich oral traditions that have been preserved for generations.
- Inuit — The Inuit, who live primarily in the circumpolar region known as Inuit Nunangat, have adapted uniquely to the extreme conditions of the Arctic. Their survival strategies, community ties, and artistic expressions reflect a deep integration with the icy landscapes.
- Métis — The Métis emerged in the 18th century as descendants of European fur traders and Indigenous women, creating communities across the prairies of central Canada. Not all people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry are Métis, of course; the Métis are a distinct Indigenous people with their own unique culture, language, and traditions.
While these groups share some overlapping experiences, particularly in terms of colonial impact, they each maintain unique traditions and social structures that are integral to their identity.
Defining Indigenous Peoples
Canada’s legal framework defines Indigenous peoples through the Constitution Act, 1982, which recognizes First Nations, Inuit and Métis as three distinct groups. This legal distinction is key to understanding the specific rights and treaties associated with each group. The introduction of the Constitution Act also represented an important shift in the recognition of the inherent rights of Indigenous nations and is key to understanding the specific rights and treaties associated with each group, breaking with earlier, more assimilationist policies under the Indian Act.
The term “Indian,” historically used to refer to First Nations people, was a legal category under the Indian Act, a piece of legislation passed in 1876 that outlined the governance and rights of First Nations reserves, covering everything from land ownership to government relations.
Nevertheless, it’s important to recognize the distinction between these legal terms and the self-identification of communities, who often prefer specific names that signify their heritage and autonomy.
Geographical Overview
The geographical distribution of Indigenous peoples in Canada is as diverse as the landscape itself.
- Traditional First Nations territories extend from the forests of British Columbia to the Great Lakes and the Atlantic coast, each area supporting distinct cultures and languages. These regions often align with the ecological boundaries that naturally define different cultural areas, such as the forests or the coasts, each of which supports unique lifestyles and social structures.
- The Arctic and sub-Arctic regions are traditionally inhabited by the Inuit, whose cultural practices are closely linked to the polar environment. Techniques for ice fishing, seal hunting, and igloo building are not just survival strategies, but integral parts of a cultural heritage that respects and adapts to the harsh conditions of the Arctic.
- Originally centered in the Red River Valley, the Métis navigated a landscape of rivers and plains that facilitated the fur trade that was central to their economy and cultural development.
The entire concept of traditional territories is central to contemporary legal contexts, as these lands are often at the heart of negotiations and claims for self-governance and resource control. These geographical distinctions are not static, but part of ongoing discussions about land rights, environmental stewardship, and cultural preservation that are instrumental to the self-identification and political autonomy of Indigenous communities.
Historical Overview and Rights Movement
The history of Canada’s Indigenous peoples spans thousands of years, beginning long before European contact. This rich historical narrative extends back to the end of the last ice age, when humans first arrived in North America. Those original groups adapted to and shaped the diverse environments of present-day Canada. The periods that followed witnessed the development of complex societies and the establishment of trade networks, spiritual practices, and governance systems that varied widely across regions and cultures:
- During the Paleoindian Period (ca. 18,000–8,000 BCE), the first inhabitants migrated across Beringia into North America.
- Throughout the Archaic Period (ca. 8,000–1,000 BCE), their descendants diversified into a wide range of cultures adapted to local environments-from coastal regions that supported complex fishing societies to the Great Plains, where nomadic peoples followed the vast bison herds.
- The Post-Archaic Period (c. 1,000 BCE–17th century CE) saw further sophistication with the development of settled agricultural communities in some areas and the rise of extensive trade networks that linked diverse groups across the continent.
Colonial Impact
The onset of European colonization marked a drastic shift. The arrival of settlers in the 16th and 17th centuries brought new technologies and goods, but also disease and a series of conflicts that profoundly affected Indigenous peoples.
As settlers continued to forcefully claim territory, the imposition of treaties and the creation of the Indian Act in 1876 formalized the loss of land and autonomy for many Indigenous communities. This statute, along with residential schools, aimed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into colonial culture, significantly impacting their cultural heritage and autonomy.
European strategies often involved severing Indigenous ties to the land and suppressing traditional governance structures. The legacy of these schools and policies has been a deep, lasting trauma among Indigenous communities, a point of significant historical injustice that has influenced contemporary Indigenous relations.
Rights Movement Evolution
In response to centuries of marginalization, the Indigenous rights movement began to form more cohesively in the mid-20th century and gained momentum as Indigenous groups organized to advocate for their rights, sovereignty, and recognition. The enactment of the Constitution Act of 1982, which recognized Indigenous and treaty rights, marked a significant legal recognition and provided a new platform for advocacy.
The following decades saw important legal victories such as Delgamuukw v. British Columbia, which recognized Indigenous title to land based on historical occupation and use, and Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia, which granted the Tsilhqot’in people title to a vast territory. These rulings underscored the importance of Indigenous laws and traditions in Canadian jurisprudence.
Today, the impact of historical injustices is more widely recognized as part of Canada’s commitment to reconciliation. Current measures, such as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s Calls to Action and the implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Canadian law, aim to correct past wrongs and improve the socio-economic conditions of Indigenous peoples.
This ongoing evolution of rights and recognition is critical to understanding how historical narratives shape contemporary Indigenous identities and their legal and cultural status in Canada.
Cultural Richness, Languages, and Traditions
Indigenous communities in Canada embody a vast and diverse tapestry of cultures, each with distinct languages, arts, and spiritual beliefs honed over millennia. Rather than monolithic, these cultures are as diverse as the landscapes from which they originate – from the Haida of the Pacific Northwest, known for their totem poles and ceremonial feasts, to the Cree of the Plains, whose storytelling traditions testify to their rich oral heritage. These cultural expressions have survived centuries of oppression and are currently experiencing a renaissance as communities seek to reclaim and revitalize their ancestral legacies.
Efforts to preserve and rejuvenate these traditions are evident in numerous contemporary initiatives across the country. Language revitalization programs are flourishing, thanks to new educational approaches and technologies that allow for broader dissemination and teaching of Indigenous languages. In the arts, there is a vibrant movement to both preserve traditional forms and reinterpret them through contemporary media, ensuring that these practices remain relevant and vital today. This cultural reawakening is intertwined with the political resurgence of Indigenous peoples as they reclaim their rights and place in Canadian society.
This cultural richness not only contributes to the identity of Indigenous communities themselves, but also enriches the national fabric of Canada. It serves as a bridge between past and present, providing insight into the deep connection between Indigenous peoples and their environment, and highlighting the unique perspectives they bring to global cultural dialogues.
Indigenous Authors
The literary contributions of Indigenous authors have played a crucial role in the cultural resurgence of Indigenous communities in Canada. Writers such as Thomas King (Cherokee), whose wry humor and poignant narratives provide a window into the complexities of Indigenous identity in contemporary Canada, and Eden Robinson (Haisla and Heiltsuk), whose novels vividly capture the struggles and resilience of her heritage, are key figures in this movement. These writers, along with others such as Richard Wagamese (Ojibwe) and Lee Maracle (Stó꞉lō), create stories that interweave the traditional and the modern, often challenging the stereotypes and historical narratives that have long dominated Canadian literature.
Their work not only preserves traditional stories, but also addresses contemporary issues of reconciliation, cultural identity, and the legacies of colonialism. These narratives are essential to understanding the lived experiences of Indigenous peoples today and provide a platform for voices that have been historically marginalized.
Indigenous Languages
Indigenous languages in Canada, from Inuktitut in the Arctic to Anishinaabemowin in the Great Lakes region, are an integral part of the cultural identity of their speakers. These languages carry unique worldviews and knowledge systems that are essential for the full expression of community life and governance. However, many of these languages are threatened with extinction due to past policies of assimilation and ongoing cultural globalization.
In response, Indigenous communities, supported by academic and government partnerships, are implementing innovative language preservation and revitalization programs. These include immersion schools for children, community-based workshops, and digital resources such as apps and podcasts that teach language skills. Such initiatives not only help preserve these languages, but also strengthen Indigenous cultural identity and continuity.
Traditional and Contemporary Arts
The visual and performing arts are a vibrant area of expression among Indigenous peoples in Canada. Traditional arts, including beadwork, weaving, and carving, are practices that carry deep spiritual and cultural significance. They are often created with locally sourced materials, reflecting a deep connection to the land. Contemporary Indigenous artists such as Rebecca Belmore (Anishinaabe) and Kent Monkman (Cree) are challenging and expanding these traditions, using modern media and techniques to comment on social issues and reinterpret historical narratives.
This fusion of old and new allows Indigenous artists to engage with a broader audience and bring Indigenous perspectives to global art platforms. Exhibitions of Indigenous art, both traditional and contemporary, often explore themes of identity, resistance, and resilience, underscoring the dynamic nature of Indigenous cultures in adapting to and influencing modernity.
Pathways to Reconciliation
Reconciliation between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government is a complex and ongoing process that includes legal, social, and cultural dimensions. It is a process that requires acknowledging past injustices, taking steps to address their effects, and fostering a new relationship based on respect, recognition, and mutual cooperation. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission report is central to these efforts, providing a comprehensive framework for achieving meaningful change. Together with community healing initiatives, they play a critical role in restoring the welfare—and the cultural integrity—of Indigenous communities.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC), established in 2008 as part of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement, aimed to document the history and lasting impact of the residential school system on Indigenous students and their families. Over the course of six years, the TRC gathered testimonies from survivors, culminating in the release of its final report and 94 calls to action in 2015.
These calls to action seek to address a wide range of issues, including child welfare, education, health, justice, and language preservation.
The work of the TRC has had a significant impact on public awareness and policy. In 2019, for example, the federal government passed Bill C-92, which recognizes the jurisdiction of Indigenous governments over child and family services. In 2021, Bill C-15 brought Canadian law in line with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)—an instrument approved in 2007 that establishes a universal framework of minimum standards for the survival, dignity, and well-being of Indigenous peoples worldwide—in another significant step towards fulfilling the calls to action and advancing Indigenous rights.
Community Healing Initiatives
Community healing initiatives are an essential component of reconciliation, addressing intergenerational trauma caused by historical injustices and promoting cultural revitalization. These initiatives often focus on restoring traditional practices, improving mental health services, and fostering community cohesion.
Prominent examples include
- The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG), an independent government body that investigated the human rights crisis of violence against Indigenous women and girls. The inquiry’s final report, released in 2019, included 231 calls for justice and urged concrete action to protect Indigenous women.
- The Indian Residential School Survivors Society (IRSSS), a Vancouver-based non-profit organization that provides counseling, health support, and cultural programming to residential school survivors and families experiencing intergenerational trauma. The IRSSS facilitates traditional healing ceremonies, language classes, and cultural practice workshops to help individuals reconnect with their heritage.
- Reconciliation Canada, a non-profit initiative launched in 2013 by Chief Robert Joseph (Gwawaenuk) and his daughter, Karen Joseph. Through public education campaigns, community engagement projects, and corporate partnerships, Reconciliation Canada seeks to create a united vision of a reconciled future.
Voices of the Indigenous Youth
Indigenous youth in Canada grapple with unique challenges—as well as opportunities—as they work to preserve their cultural identity, promote wellness, and foster resilience within their communities. Despite adversities like intergenerational trauma, systemic discrimination, and socio-economic disparities, they demonstrate remarkable resilience and agency in driving positive change.
Challenges Facing Indigenous Youth
Indigenous youth in Canada face a host of challenges that can have a negative impact on their welfare and opportunities. Some of them include higher rates of poverty, limited access to quality education, and mental health issues exacerbated by historical trauma and ongoing discrimination. Geographic isolation can further complicate these challenges, particularly for those living in remote and northern communities.
One significant concern is the high rate of youth suicide among Indigenous peoples, often fueled by factors like that intergenerational trauma and loss of cultural identity. Another critical issue is the disproportionate number of Indigenous children in the foster care system. As Indigenous scholar Carolyn Roberts (Squamish) noted in her TEDx Talk, more Indigenous children have been removed from the foster care system than have been removed from residential schools, perpetuating cycles of family separation and cultural disconnection that continue to have profound effects on Indigenous communities and youth identity.
Youth Perspectives on Identity
In the face of historical and contemporary pressures to assimilate, Indigenous youth are actively reclaiming and redefining their cultural identities. These processes include reconnecting with traditional practices, languages and values, and navigating the complexities of dual identity in a multicultural society.
A growing number of young Indigenous people are active participants in language revitalization efforts, recognizing that language is a vital link to their heritage and a key to preserving cultural knowledge. Programs such as the Mohawk Language Custodian Association and the Inuktitut Language Project empower youth to learn and teach their ancestral languages, ensuring their survival for future generations.
The arts and the media also play an important role in articulating and shaping Indigenous identity. Indigenous youth are creating films, music, and visual art that celebrate their heritage and challenge stereotypes. Platforms like the imagineNATIVE Film + Media Arts Festival provide opportunities for young Indigenous artists to showcase their work and connect with a broader audience.
Youth-Led Initiatives
Some of the most important initiatives for social and political change in Indigenous communities today are youth-led. Organizations such as the Indigenous Youth Council and the National Association of Friendship Centres (NAFC) Youth Council provide platforms for young people to voice their concerns, share their ideas and take action on issues affecting their communities.
Environmental activism is an area where Indigenous youth are leading the way. Autumn Peltier (Anishinaabe) has been a prominent water protector since childhood, confronting Prime Minister Justin Trudeau about his environmental record and addressing world leaders at the United Nations General Assembly. Autumn was only 14 when she was named Chief Water Commissioner for the Anishinaabe Nation, representing 39 First Nations in Ontario. Her advocacy has brought global attention to the lack of clean drinking water in many Indigenous communities in Canada, and she continues to speak at international forums on water rights and environmental protection.
Many young Indigenous activists are at the forefront of the Land Back movement, which seeks to address historical injustices related to land dispossession and advocates for the return of land to Indigenous management and control. Young Indigenous leaders have been instrumental in organizing protests and land defense actions, such as the Wet’suwet’en resistance camp against pipeline construction in British Columbia and the 1492 Land Back Lane blockade by Haudenosaunee youth in Ontario.
Another example of young Indigenous people using creative methods to spread their message is the We Matter campaign, founded by Kelvin and T’áncháy Redvers (Dene). It provides a space for Indigenous youth to promote hope and resilience through video, art, and social media. Their goal is to help tackle mental health issues and foster positive self-esteem among Indigenous youth—demonstrating the resilience, creativity, and commitment of young Indigenous leaders in addressing the challenges facing their communities.
Resources for Further Engagement
Engaging with Indigenous cultures, histories, and contemporary issues is essential for fostering understanding and supporting reconciliation efforts. This section provides a curated list of community organizations, educational resources, and books that offer deeper insights and opportunities for involvement.
Community Organizations and Networks
- Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC) — Advocates for the rights and well-being of Indigenous women, girls, and gender-diverse people. NWAC provides support and resources to address issues such as violence, health, and economic empowerment.
- Indspire — A charity focused on improving educational outcomes for Indigenous students through scholarships, bursaries, and mentorship programs. Indspire supports the next generation of Indigenous leaders.
- Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK) — Represents Inuit in Canada, advocating for their rights and interests, and working to improve health, education, and socio-economic conditions in Inuit communities.
- Reconciliation Canada — Aims to foster reconciliation through public education, community engagement, and dialogue between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples.
- The Art for Aid Project — Supports Indigenous art education by providing supplies and resources to young artists, fostering cultural expression and preservation.
Educational Resources
- The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation — Offers extensive resources and educational materials on the history and legacy of residential schools, providing a platform for learning and reflection.
- Indigenous Canada (University of Alberta) — A free online course covering the diverse histories, cultures, and contemporary issues facing Indigenous peoples in Canada, ideal for those seeking to deepen their understanding.
- The Canadian Museum of History’s Indigenous Hall — Features virtual tours and exhibits showcasing the rich histories and cultures of Indigenous peoples across Canada, emphasizing their contributions and resilience.
- First Nations Child & Family Caring Society — Provides resources and educational programs aimed at improving the lives of First Nations children and families, focusing on advocacy and public policy.
- The Legacy of Hope Foundation — Educates Canadians about the history and lasting impacts of the Residential School System, offering educational resources, exhibits, and workshops to foster understanding and healing.
Books
- “Namwayut—We Are All One: A Pathway to Reconciliation” by Chief Robert Joseph — Chief Robert Joseph shares his journey from surviving residential school to becoming a leader in reconciliation efforts, emphasizing our shared humanity and the need for collective healing.
- “A Mind Spread Out on the Ground” by Alicia Elliott — A powerful memoir that explores the impact of colonialism and systemic oppression on Indigenous peoples through the author’s personal experiences, addressing issues like mental health and cultural loss.
- “From the Ashes” by Jesse Thistle — A memoir that recounts the struggles and triumphs of the Métis-Cree author, providing an intimate look at the challenges faced by Indigenous people in Canada and highlighting themes of resilience and redemption.
- “Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants” by Robin Wall Kimmerer — Combining scientific knowledge with Indigenous wisdom, this book explores the relationship between humans and the natural world. Kimmerer, a botanist and member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, eloquently presents a series of interconnected essays that celebrate the gifts of the earth.
- “Legacy: Trauma, Story, and Indigenous Healing” by Suzanne Methot — Suzanne Methot (Cree) examines intergenerational trauma and its effects on Indigenous communities. Through storytelling and a focus on traditional healing practices, Methot provides a compelling argument for the need for systemic change and the restoration of Indigenous health-care models.
Exploring these resources is just the beginning of a journey toward deeper understanding and meaningful support for Indigenous communities in Canada. As you explore these books, educational tools, and organizations, consider how you can contribute to reconciliation efforts in your own community. Whether it’s through continuing education, advocacy, or supporting Indigenous-led initiatives, every action counts.